Empiricism Semantics and Ontology Carn Essay Example for Free

Empiricism Semantics and Ontology Carn Essay I. The Problem of Abstract Entities Empiricists attempt to limit themselves to nominalistic language, a language not containing references to abstract entities such as properties, classes, relations, numbers, propositions, etc. They treat mathematics as a mere calculus wherein no interpretation is given or can be given. However, abstract entities are impossible to avoid for some scientific contexts. The theory of meaning and truth is the problem of abstract entities in relation to semantics1. Semanticists claim that certain expressions designate certain entities, including abstract entities2. This violates the basic principles of empiricism and leads back to a metaphysical ontology3 of the platonic kind. Carnap rejects the idea that the use of such language embraces Platonic ontology, but is rather compatible with empiricism and scientific thinking. II. Linguistic Frameworks4 Carnap believes that for someone to speak of a new kind of entities in his language, he must construct a linguistic framework, a system of new ways of speaking and is subject to new rules. To understand these entities, we must recognize the two fundamental  questions concerning the reality of these entities: (1) Internal questions or the questions of existence of the new entities within the framework; and (2) External questions or the questions of existence of the system of entities as a while. Internal questions can be answered by new forms of expressions either by logical or empirical methods. External questions, on the other hand, are in need of a closer examination. The world of things is the simplest kind of entities we deal with everyday language and upon our acceptance of the thing  language with its framework for things, we can raise internal questions like â€Å"Is there a white piece of paper on my desk? †, â€Å"Are unicorns real or imaginary? † and these can be answered by empirical investigation. The results of this investigation can be confirmed or disconfirmed based on explicit rules for the evaluation, which is the main concern of epistemology. The rules of the framework claim that in order for something to be considered real, it must fit into a system at a particular space-time position along with other things  considered as real. The external question of the reality of the thing world is not asked by scientists but by philosophers and is given affirmative answers by realists, and negative answers from subjective idealists. This question is never resolved because it is wrongly framed. To be real in the scientific context means to be an element of the system, hence, this concept cannot be meaningfully applied to the system. Those who question the reality of the thing world are not expecting of a theoretical question, rather, a practical question which  would affect the structure of our language; hence, we must decide whether or not to adapt the forms of expression in the framework. We have accepted the thing language since our earlier years and now we are given the choice whether or not to continue using the thing language or to restrict ourselves to sense-date, to construct an alternative language with new structure and rules, or to refrain from speaking at all. However, Carnap believes that none of the above-mentioned choices is practical. So, he explained that the  acceptance of the thing language does not imply the acceptance of the existence of the thing world, but the acceptance of a certain form of language, accepting rules in order to form, test, or reject statements, and the idea of the reality of the thing world cannot be among these statements because it cannot be formulated in the thing language or in any other theoretical language. Questions regarding the efficiency, fruitfulness and simplicity of the use of the thing language are not yes-no questions but rather questions of degree. But it is wrong to say that â€Å"The fact of the efficiency of the thing language is confirming evidence for the reality of the thing world,† rather, â€Å"This fact makes it advisable to accept the thing language. † Carnap used the example of the system of numbers as an example of a system which is of a logical rather than a factual nature, based on the rules of the new expressions: 1 SEMAN? CS IS THE STUDY OF MEANINGS AND THE RELA? ON OF SIGNS AND SYMBOLS AND WHAT THEY SIGNIFY OR DENOTE. 2 E. G. PROPER? ES AS DESIGNATED BY PREDICATES AND PROPOSI? ONS AS DESIGNATED BY SENTENCES. 3 ONTOLOGY IS THE PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY OF REALITY AND IS THE DOCTRINE OF UNIVERSAL AND NECESSARY CHARACTERIS? CS OF ALL EXISTENCE. 4 A LINGUIS? C FRAMEWORK IS A SET OF LINGUIS? C CONVEN? ONS WHICH DETERMINE THE WAY IN WHICH WE SE#LE EXISTENCE PROBLEMS OF A CERTAIN sort. (1) numerals like â€Å"five† and sentence forms like â€Å"there are five books on the table† (2) the general term â€Å"number† for the new entities, and sentence forms like â€Å"five is a number† (3) expressions of properties of numbers (odd, prime), relations (greater than), and functions (plus), and sentence forms like  Ã¢â‚¬Å"two plus three is five. † (4) numerical variables (m,n,etc) and quantifiers for universal sentences (for every n,†¦. ) and existential sentences (there is an n such that†¦) with the customary deductive rules Empirical investigation is impossible to answer the internal question, â€Å"Is there a prime number greater than a hundred? †, rather it can be answered through logical analysis. He also introduced the system of propositions wherein any declarative sentence can be substituted by a variable. Every sentence that comes in the form â€Å"†¦is a proposition† is considered analytic. This framework included three constructs: (1) â€Å"For every p, either p or not –p† (2) â€Å"There is p such that p is not necessary and not –p is not necessary. † (3) â€Å"There is p such that p is a proposition. † (1) and (2) are both internal assertions of existence while (3) is an implication that there are propositions. Lastly, in the spatio-temporal coordinate system for physics, the new entities are the space-time points. Each point is an ordered quadruple of four real numbers (3 spatial and 1 temporal coordinate). It is not forced on us but is suggested by common observation. The physical state of these space-time points is described through qualitative predicates or through ascribing numbers such as mass, temperature, etc. Moving on to this physical coordinate system requires a decision on how to use language. Carnap argues that the introduction of such forms into our language is a matter of degree, and that the formulation in the form â€Å"real or not† will be inadequate. Many philosophers argue that the affirmation of the reality of the entity of the language shall come prior to the introduction of new language forms, and Carnap strongly disagrees. He claims that a new way of speaking needs not be justified because in the first place, it does not imply any assertion of reality, but only acceptance of a new framework. III. What Does Acceptance of a Kind of Entities Mean? The acceptance of a new kind of entities is represented in the language by the introduction of a framework of new forms of expressions to be used according to a new set of rules. The two essential steps into the introduction of the framework are: (1) the introduction of a general term, a predicate of higher level, for the new kind of entities, permitting us to say of any particular entity that it  belongs to this kind5; and (2) the introduction of variables of the new type. After the formulation of the new forms of language, they can now create internal questions that may either be empirical or logical, and be addressed by true answers that are either factually true or analytic. Carnap debunks the idea that the acceptance of a new framework is an assertion of the reality of the entities. He argues that the question whether or not to accept the new entities and the new linguistic form is a practical question and not a theoretical question. It cannot be judged as true or false because it is not an assertion, rather, it can be judged as being more or less expedient, fruitful and conducive. IV. Abstract Entities in Semantics In semantical meaning analysis, certain expressions are often said to designate (or name or denote or signify) certain extra- linguistic entities. Ex. â€Å"The word ‘red’ designates a property of things. † â€Å"The word ‘five’ designates a number. † Empiricists admit that these are meaningful expressions but reject the belief as they see these as implicitly presupposed by those semantical statements. 5 E. G. â€Å"RED IS A PROPERTY†, â€Å"FIVE IS A NUMBER† This belief is criticized as hypostatization, or treating as names expressions which are not names. Carnap used the example of â€Å"Fido†, his dog, as a name that designates his dog Fido, while red and five are not names and are not supposed to designate anything. To deal with this criticism, Carnap clarifies abstract entities as designata: (a) Five designates a number. This presupposes that our language L contains the forms of expressions which we have called the framework of numbers, in particular, numerical variables and the general term number. If L contains these forms, the following is an analytic statement in L. (b) Five is a number. To make the statement (a) possible, L must contain an expression like designates or is a name of for the semantical relation of designation. If suitable rules for this term are laid down, the following is likewise analytic: (c) Five designates five. Since (a) follows from (c) and (b), (a) is likewise analytic. You must accept these as true statements if you accept the framework of numbers. Carnap acknowledges the need for theoretical justification for internal assertions but argues that it is wrong to demand forsu ch when it comes to acceptance of system of entities. He cites Ernest Nagel who asked for evidence relevant for affirming with warrant that there are such entities as infinitesimals or propositions. He required the evidence to be logical and dialectical. And so Carnap provides an example of this problem of proof: â€Å"Here are three books. † The framework of the sentence allows us to communicate but the question on the ontological reality of the system of numbers continues. One philosopher believes that numbers are real entities so there is no problem in using the  numerical framework for semantical statements. A nominalistic opponent, on the other hand, says there are no numbers. For Carnap, numbers may still be used as meaningful expressions but they are not names and there are no entities designated by them. The term numbers and numerical variables must only be used as abbreviating devices: i. e. to translate them into the nominalistic thing language. He believes that there is no possible evidence relevant for both philosophers. V. Conclusion Carnap’s stand on using semantical methods depended not on the ontological question of existence of abstract entities but onthe qu estion whether or not the rise of abstract linguistic forms is expedient and fruitful for semantical analyses6. This is no yes-or-no question. It dealt with a matter of degree, by their efficiency as instruments, by the . . ratio of the results achieved to the amount and complexity of the efforts required. He challenges the nominalists to offer better arguments than merely appealing to ontological insight; probably a semantical method without any references at all to abstract entities and by simpler means, achieves the same results as other methods. Carnap  pointed out that dogmatic prohibitions are both futile and harmful that looking back to history, traces of slow development rooted to religious, metaphysical, mythological, and other irrational sources. And so by granting freedom to use any form of expression useful to them, those useless forms will sooner or later be eliminated. Carnap ended with a reminder, â€Å"Let us be cautious in making assertions and critical in examining them, but tolerant in permitting linguistic forms. † 6 SEMAN? CAL ANALYSES THAT INCLUDE THE ANALYSIS, INTERPRETA? ON, CLARI+CA? ON OR CONSTRUC? ON OF LANGUAGES OF COMMUNICA? ON, ESPECIALLY languages of science.

Smart Bombs: The History and Future of Strategic Bombardment Essay

Smart Bombs: The History and Future of Strategic Bombardment Introduction Every kid loves to hear stories from their grandparents about something that they have experienced in their life. For me, some of the best stories came from my father about the air war that was waged over Europe during World War II. He often told me of a day that a formation of almost 1,000 bombers flew over his base: "The drone of the planes could be heard for miles and made us on the ground feel as small as ants. There were over 1,000 of them overhead, in a perfect formation, each one with four engines roaring. They looked invincible to us on the ground; there were so many of them. After seeing the destruction that they brought upon the German cities and factories, I was thankful they were on our side." Those "invincible" planes my father told me of were American B-17 Bombers. With a range of 1,850 miles, a maximum ceiling of 35,600 ft. and a bomb load of 8,000 pounds, the B-17 Flying Fortress was one of the most capable of the long range bombers of World War II. Though these statistics are impressive, the technology that made this bomber so impressive was its bomb sight. The United States Army Air Corps claimed that its Norden Bomb sight, which was used in the B-17, could "place a bomb in a pickle barrel at 20,000 feet." Though it was not quite as accurate as claimed, it could hit a 100 foot square target area consistently from 20,000 feet. Using this bomb sight, which was considered top secret for the first years of the war, formations of up to 1,000 B-17's would be able to hit a target in broad daylight accurately. The effects of these bombing runs were felt heavily in the Germans manufacturing industry. On October 14, 1943, 229 B-17s ... ...003. 19 March. 2004. http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/batasmn2.htm Webmaster. "GBU-15." Military Analysis Network. May 13. 2003. 19 March. 2004. <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/smart/gbu-15.htm> Webmaster. "Guided Bomb Unit-10 (GBU-10)." Military Analysis Network. 19 February. 1998. 19 March. 2004. <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/smart/gbu-10.htm> Webmaster. "Guided Bomb Unit-28 (GBU-28) Bunker Buster." Military Analysis Network. 28 February. 1998. 19 March. 2004. <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/smart/gbu-28.htm> Webmaster. "Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM)." May 13. 2003. 19 March. 2004. ? <http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/smart/jdam.htm> WWII Statistics. 1999. <http://www.angelfire.com/ct/ww2europe/stats.html> ` "Zeppelin ZI." Spartacus School Net. <http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWzeppelin.htm>

Research & expressing emotions Essay

Art has been one of the most prolific ways of expressing emotions and thinking by mankind. Most of the traditional artists have been using different mediums to make an art form. They range from clay to paints. But in this age of electronic media, art has also found some new mediums. Electronic art is the art form which started to emerge in early 1990’s and as a result of this many young artist from the new generation became famous. One of them is Eric Jordan. He is not just an artist; he is a philosopher and a businessman. Eric Jordan is the founder of 2Advanced.com.he founded 2Advanced when he was just 23. 2Advanced is regarded as one of the most creative web design companies in the world with clients like Ford, NBC, General Electric and many other Fortune 500 companies. Eric has been the main driving force behind 2Advanced. Eric started   Eric indulged in arts from a very early age when he started making sketches but soon moved to electronic media. He started by experimenting with different softwares but couldn’t get his hand on something which could really satisfy him to express his thinkings. During this point in life he discovered two softwares which would play a pivotal role in the life of Eric: Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Flash. He started using these softwares day and night, and his hard work result in eye-catching website of 2Advanced. Currently 2Advanced is in its fourth version of the website. His work became so famous that he got nominated and won the prestigious Webby Award. The famous 2Advanced website was created by Eric in the span of two weeks. The software he used was Adobe Flash, Adobe Photoshop and Freehand. To this date 2Advanced.com has been my favorite work designed by Eric. The blend of futuristic vision with eye-catching graphics and phenomenal graphics has taken Flash and Photoshop to new heights.   Apart from being famous for amazing work at 2Advanced Eric is also a famous DJ in California. He has an extreme passion for electronic music and has been playing electronic music since he was a teenager. He believes that he could bring his futuristic vision of the world to the electronic media and he has been successful in that by showing the work he has done in the field of web design. His work mostly depicts the world of future with a careful attention to detail. In an interview while describing the theory behind 2Advanced, Eric says: â€Å"Many people think the name â€Å"2advanced† was meant to imply mastery of everything, when in reality it constitutes a love of the future and the underlying feeling that somehow I wish I had been born in the distant future. Not because I don’t appreciate the era I was born in, simply because the idea of deep technological advances and a rise in the collective human consciousness are alluring to me. 2advanced was a way for me to tell the story. Some people pick up on the message, some don’t. But even if one person understands the 2advanced voice, it makes it all worth it.†

Collaborative Learning The Theory Of Vygotsky s...

Collaborative learning stems from the theory of Vygotsky’s conception of Zone of proximal development. The thought is that children learn best with â€Å"help and guidance† (Ormrod, 2012). In transitioning this zone to a collaborative learning experience, children work with their peers in broadening their learning experience, allowing small groups of students to work together to share knowledge, exchange ideas, problem solve, and more. These classroom environments help to create durable abilities in students and aid in producing a â€Å"smoother integration into adult society when the activities resemble real-world tasks† (Ormrod, 2012). As students work with peers and adults, they adopt some of the learning strategies demonstrated and develop more skills in problem solving. This scaffolding creates a trickle-down effect of knowledge construction. In collaborative learning, students are afforded a myriad of enriching opportunities to explore perspectives th at may differ from their own. These activities serve to create a self-awareness in the student of their responsibilities to a group, requiring them to self-monitor their activity (Lee, Tsai, Chai, Koh, 2014). Information and communication technology is a term that incorporates devices or applications in which we use and manipulate. Such devices include, but are not limited to, the internet, television, social media, blogs and microblogs, software and hardware, cell phones, Web 2.0, or any other technology that can be usedShow MoreRelatedTeachers as Agents of Change3375 Words   |  14 Pageswhich educators can become more committed to their role as change agents. Reshma Rambajan University of the West Indies Many researchers have addressed the issue of teachers as change agents. According to Fullan, (1993), â€Å"change is in essence, learning to do something differently, involving adjustments to many elements of classroom practice and everybody is a change agent in quality education† (p.24). The question however arises as to whether teachers see themselves as change agents. Bansford,Read MoreSantrock Edpsych Ch0218723 Words   |  75 PagesCognitive Development Preview Examining the shape of children’s development allows us to understand it better. Every childhood is distinct, and is the first chapter in a new biography. This chapter is about children’s physical and cognitive development. These are some of the questions we will explore: †¢ Do children develop in distinct stages, or is their development smoother and more continuous? †¢ How do children develop physically, and how does this affect their behaviour and learning? †¢ What isRead More2.0 Learning And Assessment ( Final )8082 Words   |  33 Pages 2.0 LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT (final) 2.1 Introduction Because there is a learning, there is an assessment. Learning is important and assessment is a integral part of it. In other words, if learning does not take place there is nothing to assess. Therefore, we need to know how students learn in order to ensure that assessment used to assess them is appropriately matched for the underpinning of how learning takes place (Black and Wiliam, 1998; Broadfoot, et al., 1991; Brown, S., 2004-05; Pryor andRead MoreCritical Thinking - Literature Review12815 Words   |  52 PagesTHINKING 1 About Pearson Pearson, the global leader in education and education technology, provides innovative print and digital education materials for pre-K through college, student information systems and learning management systems, teacher licensure testing, teacher professional development, career certification programs, and testing and assessment products that set the standard for the industry. Pearson’s other primary businesses include the Financial Times Group and the Penguin Group. For more